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Transparent materials
When developing a new family of high performance materials, the primary objective is to optimize some physical property by introducing advanced variations in the methods or techniques of materials science (e.g. ceramics processing or glass technology) utilized. It is therefore essential to have a method of quantifying (i.e. developing a numerical representation of) the property, in order to monitor the level of progress and the technological "state of the art". In this particular case, we clearly need a measure of transparency, expressed numerically on some suitable standardized scale.
The problem here is that such a measure simply does not exist. To make matters even worse, it would be quite difficult to find a definition of transparency as a measurable physical quantity. The situation is similar to the discussion of the U.S. Supreme Court on pornography: "We cannot define it -- but we know it when we see it". Dictionaries are not much help either. E.G. Webster's Dictionary provides a correct but still qualitative definition of transparency as "having the property of transmitting light without appreciable scattering, so that bodies lying beyond the transparent object are entirely visible". So who defines "appreciable scattering" for us ? And it is still unclear if are limited to the narrow frequency band of visible (white) light.
In the field of optics, transparency is the material property of allowing light to pass through a substance. The opposite property is opacity. Transparent materials are clear (i.e. they can be seen through). Translucent materials allow light to pass through them only diffusely (i.e. they cannot be seen through clearly).
Some materials allow much of the light that falls on them to be transmitted through the material without being reflected or refracted. Materials that allow the transmission of light waves through them all called optically transparent. Chemically pure window glass and clean river or spring water are prime examples of this.
Materials which do not allow the transmission of any light wave frequencies are called opaque. Such substances have a chemical composition which includes what are referred to as absorption centers. Most materials are composed of materials which are selective in their absorption of white light frequencies. Thus they absorb certain portions of the visible spectrum, while reflecting others. The frequencies of the spectrum which are not absorbed are either reflected back or transmitted for our physical observation. This is what gives rise to color.
Thus, when light encounters a material, it can interact with it in several different ways. These interactions depend on the nature of the light (its wavelength, frequency, energy etc.) and the nature of the material. Light waves interact with the surface of an object primarily by either reflection or transmission. (A secondary response is refraction).
If the light wave is transmitted into the bulk of an object, then additional processes of selective absorption can occur. In this case, primary material considerations include both electrons and molecules as follows:
1) At the electronic level, it depends on whether the electron orbitals are spaced (or "quantized") such that they can absorb a quantum of light (or photon) of a specific frequency.
2) At the atomic or molecular level, it depends on the frequencies of atomic or molecular vibrations or chemical bonds, how close-packed its atoms or molecules are, and whether or not the atoms or molecules exhibit long-range order.
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